This topic focuses on exploring the conditions that facilitated the rise of authoritarian states in the 20th century, as well as the methods used by parties and leaders to take and maintain power. The topic explores the emergence, consolidation and maintenance of power, including the impact of the leaders’ policies, both domestic and foreign, upon the maintenance of power. Examination questions for this topic will expect students to make reference to specific authoritarian states in their responses, and some examination questions will require discussion of states from more than one region of the world. In order for students to be able to make meaningful comparisons across all aspects of the prescribed content, it is recommended that a minimum of three authoritarian states should be studied.
Emergence of authoritarian states
Conditions in which authoritarian states emerged: economic factors; social division; impact of war; weakness of political system
Methods used to establish authoritarian states: persuasion and coercion; the role of leaders; ideology; the use of force; propaganda
Consolidation and maintenance of power
Use of legal methods; use of force; charismatic leadership; dissemination of propaganda
Nature, extent and treatment of opposition
The impact of the success and/or failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power
Aims and results of policies
Aims and impact of domestic economic, political, cultural and social policies
The impact of policies on women and minorities
Authoritarian control and the extent to which it was achieved
Suggested examples Please note that the examples provided here are suggestions only. Teachers are free to use examples from this list or any other appropriate examples, depending on the particular needs and interests of the teacher and students.
Africa and the Middle East: Tanzania—Nyerere; Egypt—Nasser; Iraq—Saddam Hussein; Kenya—Kenyatta; Uganda—Amin The Americas: Argentina—Perón; Cuba—Castro; Chile—Pinochet; Haiti—Duvalier; Nicaragua—Somoza Asia and Oceania: China—Mao; Indonesia—Sukarno; Pakistan—Zia ul Haq; Cambodia—Pol Pot Europe: Germany—Hitler; USSR—Stalin; Italy—Mussolini; Spain—Franco; Poland—Pilsudski
The Cold War dominated global affairs from the end of the Second World War to the early 1990s. This topic focuses on how superpower rivalries did not remain static but changed according to styles of leadership, strength of ideological beliefs, economic factors and crises involving client states. The topic aims to promote an international perspective on the Cold War by requiring the study of Cold War leaders, countries and crises from more than one region of the world.
Rivalry, mistrust and accord
The breakdown of the grand alliance and the emergence of superpower rivalry in Europe and Asia (1943–1949): role of ideology; fear and aggression; economic interests; a comparison of the roles of the US and the USSR
The US, USSR and China—superpower relations (1947–1979): containment; peaceful co-existence; Sino-Soviet and Sino-US relations; detente
Confrontation and reconciliation; reasons for the end of the Cold War (1980–1991): ideological challenges and dissent; economic problems; arms race
Leaders and nations
The impact of two leaders, each chosen from a different region, on the course and development of the Cold War
The impact of Cold War tensions on two countries (excluding the USSR and the US)
Cold War crises
Cold War crises case studies: detailed study of any two Cold War crises from different regions: examination and comparison of the causes, impact and significance of the two crises
Examples of Cold War crises Africa and the Middle East: Suez Crisis (1956); Congo (1960–1961); outbreak of Angolan Civil War (1975) The Americas: Cuban Missile Crisis (1962); US intervention in Chile (1973); Contra War (1981–1990) Asia and Oceania: Chinese Offshore Island Crises (1954/1958); North Korean invasion of South Korea (1950); Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) Europe: Berlin blockade (1948–1949), Berlin Wall (1958–1961); Hungary (1956); the Prague spring (1968); the USSR and eastern Europe (1981–1989)
Topic 11: Causes and Effects of 20th Century Wars
Paper 2 Section Description
This topic focuses on the causes, practice and effects of war in the 20th century. The topic explores the causes of wars, as well as the way in which warfare was conducted, including types of war, the use of technology, and the impact these factors had upon the outcome. Examination questions for this topic will require students to make reference to specific 20th-century wars in their responses, and some examination questions will require discussion of wars from more than one region of the world. Please note that the suggested examples for this topic include “cross-regional” wars such as the First and Second World Wars. In examination questions that ask students to discuss examples of wars from different regions, students may use these wars in a regional context (for example, the Second World War in the Pacific) but may not then use the same war in a different region (for example, the Second World War in Europe) in the same response.
Causes of war
Economic, ideological, political, territorial and other causes
Short- and long-term causes
Practices of war and their impact on the outcome
Types of war: civil wars; wars between states; guerrilla wars
Technological developments; theatres of war—air, land and sea
The extent of the mobilization of human and economic resources
The influence and/or involvement of foreign powers
Effects of war
The successes and failures of peacemaking
Territorial changes
Political repercussions
Economic, social and demographic impact; changes in the role and status of women
Suggested examples
Africa and the Middle East: Algerian War (1954–1962); Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970); Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988); North Yemen Civil War (1962–1970); First Gulf War (1990–1991)
The Americas: Chaco War (1932–1935); Falklands/Malvinas War (1982); Mexican Revolution (1910–1920); Contra War (1981–1990)
Asia and Oceania: Chinese Civil War (1927–1937 and/or 1946–1949); Vietnam (1946–1954 and/or 1964–1975); Indo-Pakistan Wars (1947–1949 and/or 1965 and/or 1971)
Europe: Spanish Civil War (1936–1939); the Balkan Wars (1990s); Russian Civil War (1917–1922); Irish War of Independence (1919–1921)
Cross-regional wars: First World War (1914–1918); Second World War (1939–1945); Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)